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<ol class="chapter"><li class="chapter-item expanded affix "><a href="../index.html">The Puck Programming Language</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="OVERVIEW.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.</strong> Basic Usage</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">1.1.</strong> Variables and Comments</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">1.2.</strong> Functions and Indentation</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">1.3.</strong> Uniform Function Call Syntax</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">1.4.</strong> Basic Types</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">1.5.</strong> Conditionals and Pattern Matching</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">1.6.</strong> Error Handling</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">1.7.</strong> Blocks and Loops</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">1.8.</strong> Module System</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">1.9.</strong> Compile-time Programming</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">1.10.</strong> Async System and Threading</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">1.11.</strong> Memory Management</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">1.12.</strong> Types System</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">1.13.</strong> Structs and Tuples</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">1.14.</strong> Unions and Enums</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">1.15.</strong> Classes</div></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="SYNTAX.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.</strong> Syntax</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">2.1.</strong> Call Syntax</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">2.2.</strong> Indentation Rules</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">2.3.</strong> Expression Rules</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">2.4.</strong> Reserved Keywords</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">2.5.</strong> A Formal Grammar</div></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="TYPES.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.</strong> Type System</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">3.1.</strong> Basic Types</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">3.2.</strong> Parameter Types</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">3.3.</strong> Reference Types</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">3.4.</strong> Abstract Types</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">3.5.</strong> Advanced Types</div></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="MODULES.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.</strong> Module System</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">4.1.</strong> What are modules?</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">4.2.</strong> Using modules</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">4.3.</strong> Implicit modules</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">4.4.</strong> Defining interfaces [todo]</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">4.5.</strong> Defining an external API [todo]</div></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="MEMORY_MANAGEMENT.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.</strong> Memory Management [todo]</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="METAPROGRAMMING.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.</strong> Metaprogramming</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">6.1.</strong> Scope</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.</strong> Usage</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">6.3.</strong> Quoting [todo]</div></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ERRORS.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.</strong> Error Handling</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">7.1.</strong> Errors as monads</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">7.2.</strong> Errors as checked exceptions</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">7.3.</strong> Errors as effects [todo]</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">7.4.</strong> Unrecoverable Exceptions</div></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="ASYNC.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.</strong> Async System</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">8.1.</strong> Effects System [todo]</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">8.2.</strong> Threading [todo]</div></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="INTEROP.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.</strong> Language Interop [draft]</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">9.1.</strong> Rust</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">9.2.</strong> Swift, Nim</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">9.3.</strong> Java, Kotlin</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">9.4.</strong> Python, Racket, C</div></li></ol></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">10.</strong> Effects System [draft]</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">11.</strong> Refinement Types [draft]</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><div><strong aria-hidden="true">12.</strong> Dependent Types [draft]</div></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="EXAMPLES.html" class="active"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.</strong> Examples</a></li></ol>
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<h1 class="menu-title">The Puck Programming Language</h1>
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<h1 id="example-programs"><a class="header" href="#example-programs">Example Programs</a></h1>
<p>These are taken directly from the (work-in-progress) stdlib.</p>
<h2 id="stdoptions"><a class="header" href="#stdoptions">std.options</a></h2>
<pre><code class="language-puck">## std.options: Optional types.
## This module is imported by default.
use std.format
## The `Option` type.
## A type that represents either the presence or absence of a value.
pub type Option[T] = union
Some(T)
None
## Syntactic sugar for optional type declarations.
pub macro ?(T: type) =
quote Option[`T`]
## Directly accesses the inner value. Throws an exception if None.
pub func : T =
if self of Some(x) then x
else raise "empty"
## Indirect access. Propagates `None`.
pub macro ?[T](self: Option[T]) =
quote
match `self`
of Some(x) then x
of None then return None
## Checks if a type is present within an `Option` type.
pub func is_some[T](self: T?): bool =
self of Some(_)
## Checks if a type is not present within an `Option` type.
pub func is_none[T](self: T?): bool =
self of None
## Converts an `Option[T]` to a `Result[T, E]` given a user-provided error.
pub func err[T, E](self: T?, error: E): Result[T, E] =
if self of Some(x) then
Okay(x)
else
Error(error)
## Applies a function to `T`, if it exists.
pub func map[T, U](self: T?, fn: T -> U): U? =
if self of Some(x) then
Some(fn(x))
else
None
## Converts `T` to a `None`, if `fn` returns false and it exists.
pub func filter[T](self: T?, fn: T -> bool): T? =
if self of Some(x) and fn(x) then
Some(x)
else
None
## Applies a function to T, if it exists. Equivalent to `self.map(fn).flatten`.
pub func flatmap[T, U](self: T?, fn: T -> U?): U? =
if self of Some(x) then
fn(x)
else
None
## Converts from Option[Option[T]] to Option[T].
pub func flatten[T](self: T??): T? =
if self of Some(Some(x)) then
Some(x)
else
None
## Returns the inner value or a default.
pub func get_or[T](self: T?, default: T): T =
if self of Some(x) then x
else default
## Overloads the `==` operation for use on Options.
pub func ==[T](a, b: T?): bool =
if (a, b) of (Some(x), Some(y)) then
x == y
else
false
## Overloads the `str()` function for use on Options.
pub func str[T: Display](self: T?): str =
if self of Some(x) then
"Some({})".fmt(x.str)
else
"None"
# references:
# https://nim-lang.github.io/Nim/options.html
# https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/option/enum.Option.html
</code></pre>
<h2 id="stdresults"><a class="header" href="#stdresults">std.results</a></h2>
<pre><code class="language-puck">## std.results: Result types.
## This module is imported by default.
use std.[options, format]
## The Result type. Represents either success or failure.
pub type Result[T, E] = union
Okay(T)
Error(E)
## The Err class. Useful for dynamically dispatching errors.
pub type Err = class
str(Self): str
dbg(Self): str
## A `Result` type that uses dynamically dispatched errors.
## The `Error` may be any type implementing `Err`.
pub type Result[T] = Result[T, ref Err]
## A `Result` type that only checks for success.
## Does not contain a value.
# pub type Success[E] = Result[void, E]
## A `Result` type that only checks for success.
## Does not contain a value. Dynamically dispatched.
# pub type Success = Result[void]
## Syntactic sugar for dynamic result type declarations.
pub macro !(T: type) =
quote Result[`T`]
## Indirect access. Propagates `Error`.
pub macro ?[T, E](self: Result[T, E]) =
quote
match `self`
of Okay(x) then x
of Error(e) then return Error(e)
## Checks if a `Result` type was successful.
pub func is_ok[T, E](self: Result[T, E]): bool =
self of Okay(_)
## Checks if a `Result` type was not successful.
pub func is_err[T, E](self: Result[T, E]): bool =
self of Error(_)
## Converts from a `Result[T, E]` to an `Option[T]`.
pub func ok[T, E](self: Result[T, E]): T? =
if self of Okay(x) then
Some(x)
else
None
## Converts from a `Result[T, E]` to an `Option[E]`.
pub func err[T, E](self: Result[T, E]): E? =
if self of Error(x) then
Some(x)
else
None
## Applies a function to `T`, if self is `Okay`.
pub func map[T, E, U](self: Result[T, E], fn: T -> U): Result[U, E] =
match self
of Okay(x) then
Okay(fn(x))
of Error(e) then
Error(e)
## Applies a function to `E`, if self is `Error`.
pub func map_err[T, E, F](self: Result[T, E], fn: E -> F): Result[T, F] =
match self
of Error(e) then
Error(fn(e))
of Okay(x) then
Okay(x)
## Applies a function to `T`, if it exists. Equivalent to `self.map(fn).flatten`.
pub func flatmap[T, E, U](self: Result[T, E], fn: T -> Result[U, E]): Result[U, E] =
match self
of Okay(x) then
fn(x)
of Error(e) then
Error(e)
## Converts from a `Result[Result[T, E], E]` to a `Result[T, E]`.
pub func flatten[T, E](self: Result[Result[T, E], E]): Result[T, E] =
match self
of Okay(Okay(x)) then
Okay(x)
of Okay(Error(e)), Error(e) then
Error(e)
## Transposes a `Result[Option[T], E]` to an `Option[Result[T, E]]`.
pub func transpose[T, E](self: Result[T?, E]): Result[T, E]? =
match self
of Okay(Some(x)) then
Some(Okay(x))
of Okay(None), Error(_) then
None
## Transposes an `Option[Result[T, E]]` to a `Result[Option[T], E]`. Takes a default error.
pub func transpose[T, E](self: Result[T, E]?, error: E): Result[T?, E] =
match self
of Some(Okay(x)) then Okay(Some(x))
of Some(Error(e)) then Error(e)
of None then Error(error)
## Returns the inner value or a default.
pub func get_or[T, E](self: Result[T, E], default: T): T =
if self of Okay(x) then x
else default
## Directly accesses the inner value. Throws an exception if `Error`.
pub func : T =
match self
of Okay(x) then x
of Error(e) then raise e
## Directly accesses the inner error. Throws an exception of type T if `Okay`.
pub func get_err[T, E](self: Result[T, E]): E =
match self
of Error(e) then e
of Okay(x) then raise x
## Overloads the `==` operation for use on Results.
pub func ==[T, E, F](a: Result[T, E], b: Result[T, F]): bool =
if (a, b) of (Okay(x), Okay(y)) then
x == y
else
false
## Overloads the `str()` function for use on Results.
pub func str[T: Display, E: Display](self: Result[T, E]): str =
match self
of Some(x) then
"Okay({})".fmt(x.str)
of Error(e) then
"Error({})".fmt(e.str)
# references:
# https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/result/enum.Result.html
# https://github.com/arnetheduck/nim-results
# https://github.com/codex-storage/questionable
</code></pre>
<h2 id="stdformat"><a class="header" href="#stdformat">std.format</a></h2>
<pre><code class="language-puck">## std.format: Niceties around printing and debugging.
## This module is imported by default.
## The Display class. Any type implementing `str` is printable.
## Any type that is Display must necessarily also implement Debug.
pub type Display = class
str(Self): str
dbg(Self): str
## The Debug class. Broadly implemented for every type with compiler magic.
## Types can (and should) override the generic implementations.
pub type Debug = class
dbg(Self): str
## Prints all of its arguments to the command line.
pub func print(params: varargs[Display]) =
stdout.write(params.map(x => x.str).join(" "), "\n")
## Prints all of its arguments to the command line, in Debug form.
##
## Note: this function is special! It does not count as a side effect.
## This breaks effect tracking, of course: but `dbg` is for debugging.
## It will produce a warning in code compiled for release.
@[pure]
pub func dbg(params: varargs[Debug]) =
stdout.write(params.map(x => x.dbg).join(" "), "\n")
## A dummy implementation of the Display class for strings.
pub func str(self: str): str = self
## An implementation of the Debug class for strings.
pub func dbg(self: str): str = "\"" & self & "\""
## An implementation of the Debug class for all structs.
## Uses the special `struct` typeclass.
pub func dbg[T: Debug](self: struct[T]): str =
"{{}}".fmt(self.fields.map((key, val) => key & ":" & val.dbg))
## An implementation of the Debug class for all tuples.
## Uses the special `tuple` typeclass.
pub func dbg[T: Debug](self: tuple[T]): str =
"({})".fmt(self.fields.map((key, val) =>
key.map(x => x & ":").get_or("") & val.dbg).join(", "))
## An implementation of the Debug class for all arrays and lists.
pub func dbg[T: Debug](self: Iter[T]): str =
"[{}]".fmt(self.map(x => x.dbg).join(", "))
## The fmt macro. Builds a formatted string from its arguments.
pub macro fmt(self: const str, args: varargs[Display]): str =
let parts = self.split("{}")
if parts.len != args.len + 1 then
macro_error("wrong number of arguments")
use std.ast
var res = parts.get(0)!
for i, arg in args do
res &= quote(`parts` & str(`arg`) &) # fixme
res &= parts.last()!
res
</code></pre>
<h2 id="stddebug"><a class="header" href="#stddebug">std.debug</a></h2>
<pre><code class="language-puck">## std.debug: Useful functions for debugging.
## This module is imported by default.
## The `assert` macro checks that a provided assertation is true,
## and panics and dumps information if it is not.
## Asserts remain in release builds. If not desired, see `dbg_assert`
pub macro assert(cond: bool) =
quote
if not `cond` then
panic "assertation failed!\n {}".fmt(dbg(`cond`))
## The `dbg_assert` function provides an assert that is compiled out in release builds.
## This is useful for debugging performance-critical code.
pub macro dbg_assert(cond: bool) =
quote
when debug then # fixme: where is this constant coming from?
assert `cond`
## The `discard` function consumes an object of any type.
## Useful for throwing away the result of a computation.
pub func discard[T](self: T) =
return
## The `panic` function prints a message to `stderr` and quits.
pub func panic(message: str): never =
stderr.write(message, "\n")
std.os.exit(1)
## The special ... syntax is used to mark unimplemented parts of code.
## Such code will compile, but panic upon being called at runtime.
## It is usable almost anywhere, including in type declarations, thanks to compiler magic.
@[magic]
pub func ...: never =
panic("unimplemented")
</code></pre>
<h2 id="stdlists"><a class="header" href="#stdlists">std.lists</a></h2>
<pre><code class="language-puck">## std.lists: Dynamic arrays.
## This module is imported by default.
## The fundamental list type. Heap-allocated.
## Equivalent to Vec<T> in other languages.
@[opaque] # opaque on a struct tells us raw field access breaks invariants.
pub type list[T] = struct
data: ptr T
capacity: uint
length: uint
## A transparent, common alias for a list of bytes.
pub type bytes = list[byte]
## Initialize and return an empty list with inner type T.
pub func init[T]: list[T] =
{ data = nil, capacity = 0, length = 0 } # fixme: nil!!!!!
## Gets the length of a list.
@[inline] # idk what to do with attributes
pub func len[T](self: lent list[T]): uint =
self.length
pub func empty[T](self: lent list[T]): bool =
self.length == 0
## Gets the internal capacity of a list.
func cap[T](self: lent list[T]): uint =
self.capacity
## Expands the capacity of a list.
@[safe]
func grow[T](self: mut list[T]) =
self.capacity = max(self.length + 1, self.capacity * 2)
self.data = self.data.realloc(self.capacity * sizeof(T))
## Pushes a new element to the end of a list.
@[safe]
pub func push[T](self: mut list[T], val: T) =
if self.capacity == self.length then self.grow()
self.data.set(val, offset = self.length)
self.length += 1
## Takes ownership of and pushes all the values of a list into another list.
pub func push[T](self: mut list[T], values: list[T]) =
for val in values do
self.push(val)
## Removes & returns an element from the end of a list, if it exists.
@[safe]
pub func pop[T](self: mut list[T]): T? =
if self.length == 0 then
None
else
self.length -= 1
Some(self.data.get(offset = self.length))
## Returns a reference to an element of a list, if in range.
@[safe]
pub func get[T](self: lent list[T], i: uint): lent T? =
if i > self.length then
None
else # fixme: interior mutability
Some(lent self.data.get(offset = i))
## Returns a mutable reference to an element of a list, if in range.
@[safe]
pub func get[T](self: mut list[T], i: uint): mut T? =
if i > self.length then
None
else # fixme: interior mutability
Some(mut self.data.get(offset = i))
## Sets the element of a list to a value.
@[safe]
pub func set[T](self: mut list[T], i: uint, val: T) =
assert i <= self.length, "index out of bounds"
Okay(self.data.set(offset = i, val))
## Inserts a value at a location and shifts elements of the list accordingly.
@[safe]
pub func insert[T](self: mut list[T], i: uint, val: T) =
assert i <= self.length, "index out of bounds"
if self.capacity == self.length then self.grow()
self.data.offset(i).copy(self.data.offset(i + 1), self.length - i)
self.data.set(i, val)
self.length += 1
## Inserts a list of values at a location and shifts elements of the list accordingly.
pub func insert[T](self: mut list[T], i: uint, vals: list[T]) =
for val in vals.rev: # inserting backwards avoids counting
self.insert(val, i)
## Removes a value at a location and shifts elements of the list accordingly.
@[safe]
pub func remove[T](self: mut list[T], i: uint): T? =
if index < self.length then None
else
self.length -= 1
let res = self.data.get(i)
self.data.offset(i + 1).copy(self.data.offset(i), self.length - i)
res
## Gets the last element of a list, if it exists.
pub func last[T](self: lent list[T]): lent T? =
self.get(self.len - 1)
## Gets the last element of a list mutably, if it exists.
pub func last[T](self: mut list[T]): mut T? =
self.get(self.len - 1)
# reference: https://doc.rust-lang.org/nomicon/vec/vec.html
</code></pre>
<h2 id="stdstrings"><a class="header" href="#stdstrings">std.strings</a></h2>
<pre><code class="language-puck">## std.strings: The standard implementation of strings.
## This module is imported by default.
## A primitive string type.
##
## We do not want methods defined on `list[byte]` to carry over,
## so we define `str` as a newtype.
@[opaque]
pub type str = struct
data: list[byte]
## Initialize and return an empty string.
pub func init: str = { data = [] }
## Gets the length of a string.
## This is an O(n) operation, due to UTF-8 encoding.
pub func len(self: lent str): uint =
var res: uint
for _ in self do
res += 1
res
## Pushes a character to the end of a mutable string.
pub func push(self: mut str, val: char) =
self.data.push(val.byte) # todo: obsolete by from/to conversion??
## Pushes an owned string to the end of a mutable string.
pub func push(self: mut str, val: str) =
self.data.push(val.bytes) # todo: obsolete by from/to conversion??
## Removes and returns the last character of a string, if it exists.
##
## SAFETY: We return early upon an empty string.
## And decrement by one char for a non-empty string.
@[safe]
pub func pop(self: mut str): char? =
let char = self.chars.rev.next?
self.data.set_len(self.len - char.len) # this is normally unsafe.
Some(char)
## Returns the character at the provided index, if it exists.
pub func get(self: str, i: uint): char? =
...
## Sets the character at the provided index, if it exists.
## As strings are packed, this may call str.grow and reallocate.
## oh fuck we have to insert + remove anyway
pub func set(self: mut str, i: uint, val: char) =
...
## Inserts a character at an arbitrary position within a string.
## Panics on failure. (todo: can we do better?)
pub func insert(self: mut str, i: uint, val: char) =
...
## Removes and returns a character at an arbitrary position within a string.
## Panics on failure. (todo: can we do better?)
pub func remove(self: mut str, i: uint): char? =
...
## Syntactic sugar for string appending.
pub func &=(a: mut str, b: str) =
a.push(b)
## The concatenation operator. Consumes two strings.
pub func &(a: str, b: str): str =
a.push(b)
a
## Conversion from a string to a list of bytes. Zero-cost.
pub func to(self: str): list[byte] = self.data
## Conversion from a str to a list[char]. Reallocates.
pub func to(self: str): list[char] =
var res: list[char]
for char in self do res.push(char)
res
## Conversion from a char to an array of bytes. Zero-cost.
@[safe] # possibly unsafe?? depends on repr of arrays
pub func to(self: char): array[byte, 4] =
self.cast[array[byte, 4]]
# reference: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/string/struct.String.html
</code></pre>
<h2 id="stdcompare"><a class="header" href="#stdcompare">std.compare</a></h2>
<pre><code class="language-puck">## std.compare: Classes for comparable types.
## The Eq class. For types with some notion of equivalence.
pub type Eq = class
==(Self, Self): bool
## A blanket implementation of a corresponding not-equal function.
pub !=[T: Eq](a: T, b: T): bool =
not(a == b)
## The Compare class. For a type comparable with itself.
pub type Compare = class
<(a: Self, b: Self): bool
## A blanket implementation of a corresponding greater-than function.
## Note to self: do NOT inline!
pub func >[T: Compare](a: T, b: T): bool =
b < a
## The Ord class. For types with some notion of equivalence and comparision.
##
## Note: This is *not* a mathematical notion of an order!
## No invariants on `<` nor `==` are guaranteed to hold, as classes
## are implicitly implementable.
pub type Ord = class
<(a: Self, b: Self): bool
==(a: Self, b: Self): bool
## A blanket implementation of a corresponding less-than-or-equal function.
pub func <=[T: Ord](a: T, b: T): bool =
a < b or a == b
## A blanket implementation of a corresponding greater-than-or-equal function.
pub func >=[T: Ord](a: T, b: T): bool =
a > b or a == b
# reference: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/cmp
</code></pre>
<h2 id="stdconvert"><a class="header" href="#stdconvert">std.convert</a></h2>
<pre><code class="language-puck">## std.convert: Classes for type coersion and conversion.
## This module is imported by default.
## The Coerce class is used for type conversion that will not fail.
## Its associated methods, `from` and `into`, are used internally
## by the compiler for implicit type conversion (coersion).
pub type Coerce[T] = class
to(Self): T
# from(T): Self
## The `from` function is automatically implemented for all types that
## implement `to`: that is, all types T that are convertable to U.
pub func from[T: Coerce[U], U](self: U): T =
to(self)
## The Convert class is used for type conversion that may fail.
# We'll see what this breaks.
pub type Convert[T, E] = class
to(Self): Result[T, E]
</code></pre>
<h2 id="stdranges"><a class="header" href="#stdranges">std.ranges</a></h2>
<pre><code class="language-puck">## std.ranges: Ranges of integers and other things. For iteration.
## This module is imported by default.
type Range[T] = struct
start: T
end: T
type RangeIncl[T] = struct
start: T
end: T
done: bool
## Exclusive ranges. Useful for iteration.
## Includes `from`, does not include `to`.
pub func ..(from: int, to: int): Range[int] = { from, to }
## Inclusive ranges. Useful for ranges.
## Includes `from` and `to`.
pub func ..=(from: int, to: int): RangeIncl[int] = { from, to, done = false }
# todo: implement for all types that can increment or smth idk
pub func next[T: int](self: mut Range[T]): T? =
if self.start < self.end then
self.start += 1
Some(self.start - 1)
else
None
# todo: We don't need a mutable Range here to peek.
# How does this interact with classes?
pub func peek[T: int](self: mut Range[T]): T? =
self.peek_nth(0)
pub func peek_nth[T: int](self: mut Range[T], i: uint): T? =
let res = self.start + i
if res < self.end then
Some(res)
else
None
pub func next[T: int](self: mut RangeIncl[T]): T? =
if self.done then
None
elif self.start < self.end then
let res = self.start
self.start += 1
Some(res)
elif self.start == self.end then
self.done = true
Some(self.start)
else
self.done = true
None
pub func peek[T: int](self: mut RangeIncl[T]): T? =
self.peek_nth(0)
pub func peek_nth[T: int](self: mut RangeIncl[T], i: uint): T? =
let res = self.start + i
if res <= self.end
then Some(res)
else None
</code></pre>
<h2 id="stdast"><a class="header" href="#stdast">std.ast</a></h2>
<pre><code class="language-puck">## std.ast: Exposes the AST for building and operating on with macros.
## The `Expr` type represents the abstract syntax tree of Puck itself.
## It notably lacks type information. It is also not necessarily syntactically
## correct-by-construction: Cond, Try, and Match expressions must have at least
## one branch in their branches (yet this is not expressible here).
pub type Expr = union
# Terms
Ident(str)
Number(int)
Float(float)
Char(char)
String(str)
Struct(list[(field: str, value: Expr)]) # {...}
Tuple(list[(field: str?, value: Expr)]) # (...)
List(list[Expr]) # [...]
# Bindings
Let(id: Pattern, kind: Type?, value: ref Expr)
Var(id: Pattern, kind: Type?, value: ref[Expr]?)
Constant(public: bool, id: Pattern, kind: Type?, value: ref Expr)
FuncDecl(
public: bool,
id: str,
generics: list[(id: str, kind: Type?)],
params: list[(id: str, kind: Type)],
kind: Type?,
body: list[Expr])
MacroDecl(
public: bool,
id: str,
generics: list[(id: str, kind: Type?)],
params: list[(id: str, kind: Type?)],
kind: Type?,
body: list[Expr])
TypeDecl(
public: bool,
id: str,
generics: list[str],
body: Type)
Module(
public: bool,
id: str,
generics: list[str], # always empty for now
body: list[Expr])
Use(modules: list[(path: str, alias: str?)])
# Control Flow
Call(id: str, params: list[Expr])
Cond(
branches: list[(cond: Expr, body: list[Expr])],
else_body: list[Expr])
Try(
try_body: list[Expr],
catches: list[(exceptions: list[str], body: list[Expr])],
finally_body: list[Expr]) # todo: throw this out
Match(
item: ref Expr,
branches: list[(pattern: Pattern, guard: Expr?, body: list[Expr])])
Block(id: str?, body: list[Expr])
Static(body: list[Expr])
For(binding: Pattern, range: ref Expr, body: list[Expr])
While(cond: ref Expr, body: list[Expr])
Loop(body: list[Expr])
Attribute(on: ref Expr)
Quote(body: ref Expr)
Unquote(body: ref Expr)
pub type Type = ref union
Never
Int(size: uint)
Dec(size: uint)
Float(size: uint)
Func(from: list[Type], to: Type)
Struct(list[(id: str, kind: Type)])
Tuple(list[(id: str?, kind: Type)])
Union(list[(id: str, kind: Type)])
Class(list[(id: str, from: list[Type], to: Type?)])
Array(size: uint, kind: Type)
List(Type)
Slice(Type) # todo: plus ownership
Alias(str) # todo: params?? huh?
Const(Type)
Lent(Type)
Mut(Type)
Ref(Type)
Refc(Type)
Ptr(Type)
pub type Pattern = union
Ident(str)
Number(int), Float(float), Char(char), String(str)
Struct(name: str, params: list[Pattern])
Tuple(list[Pattern])
List(list[Pattern])
@[magic]
pub func quote(body): Expr
</code></pre>
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