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diff --git a/linguistics/syntax.md b/linguistics/syntax.md index c2c3b54..935db7c 100644 --- a/linguistics/syntax.md +++ b/linguistics/syntax.md @@ -3,3 +3,185 @@ layout: linguistics title: linguistics/syntax --- +# morphology and syntax + +Morphology is the study of **word formation**.<br> +Syntax is the study of **sentence formation**.<br> +Specifically, both morphology and syntax focus on **structure**. + +The distinction between syntax and morphology varies across languages. They can be considered to form an overarching **morphosyntactic** theory. + +## Summary + +> Be warned! These notes are incomplete and almost certainly somewhat inaccurate. Proceed at your own risk. + +- History of Syntax + - A wrong approach: Phrase Structure Rules +- Morphology [SKS 2] + - Syntactic Categories [SKS 2.1] + - Compositionality [SKS 2.3] + - Headedness [SKS 2.4] + - Features +- Basic Ideas + - Constituency [SKS 3] + - Heads, Specifiers and Complements + - Minimalism [n/a] +- Notation + - X'-theory [SKS 6] + - Bare Phrase Structure [n/a] + - Lexical Entries [SKS 6.8] +- Merge + - Projection [SKS 5] + - Selection + - Small Clauses + - Silent Heads +- Move [SKS 8] + - Head Movement (affix hopping) [SKS 8.3] + - Questions + - vP Shells [SKS 12.4] +- Agree + - Theta Roles (assigned by verbs) + - Locality (c-command) + - Binding (Principles A, B, C) [SKS 7] + - Small Clauses [SKS 7.4] + - Raising & Control [SKS 9] +- References + +## Morphology + +... + +## Notation + +So far, we've been discussing syntax and giving examples using somewhat informal notation. We now formalize this notation. + +It cannot be emphasized enough that notational conventions are *just that*: notational conventions. There's nothing stopping us from exclusively using X'-notation or exclusively using bare phrase structure, and syntactic concepts are *not* tied to any specific notation. I will pretty much exclusively bare phrase structure going forth as I like it a whole lot more. + +### X'-theory + +**X'-theory** (x-bar theory) is a notation originally put forth by Chomsky... + +```forest +[XP + [X [(head)]] + [Y [(complement)]]] +``` + +```forest +[XP + [Y [(complement)]] + [X [(head)]]] +``` + +```forest +[X + [Y_X [(left adjunct)]] + [X [(head)]]] +``` + +```forest +[X + [X [(head)]] + [Y_X [(right adjunct)]]] +``` + +... + +### Bare Phrase Structure + +**Bare Phrase Structure** (BPS) is a more modern notation that does away with much of the notational cruft of X'-theory. Instead of bar levels and distinctions between bar levels and "phrases", we simply put the *formal features* of our lexicon in the chart itself and only indicate the *types* of phrases. Whether a phrase has yet to close yet or not (previously indicated by a 'bar) is now indicated by whether there are any unsatisfied selectional requirements on the phrase label. + +As such, we may represent phrases with the + +**Head-Initial Phrases** +![`[X [X_Y (head)] [Y (complement)]]`](head-initial.png) +<details markdown="block"> +<summary>LaTeX</summary> + +```latex +\begin{forest} +[$X$ + [$X_Y$ [(head)]] + [$Y$ [(complement)]]] +\end{forest} +``` + +</details> + +**Head-Final Phrases** +![`[X [Y (complement)] [X_Y (head)]]`](head-final.png) +<details markdown="block"> +<summary>LaTeX</summary> + +```latex +\begin{forest} +[$X$ + [$Y$ [(complement)]] + [$X_Y$ [(head)]]] +\end{forest} +``` + +</details> + +Recall that adjuncts are able to appear on either side of their head. Also recall that adjuncts *select* for their head. We indicate this in our labeling: adjuncts, like heads, have their selectional requirements marked, but do not propagate their type. While certain constructions may lead to notational ambiguity - an adjunct and a head of the same type, specifically - this is rare enough (only really occurring with adverbs) that we take the convenience of BPS notation regardless. + +**Left Adjuncts** +![`[X [Y_X (left adjunct)] [X (head)]]`](left-adjunct.png) +<details markdown="block"> +<summary>LaTeX</summary> + +```latex +\begin{forest} +[$X$ + [$Y_X$ [(left adjunct)]] + [$X$ [(head)]]] +\end{forest} +``` + +</details> + +**Right Adjuncts** +![`[X [X (head)] [Y_X (right adjunct)]]`](right-adjunct.png) +<details markdown="block"> +<summary>LaTeX</summary> + +```latex +\begin{forest} +[$X$ + [$X$ [(head)]] + [$Y_X$ [(right adjunct)]]] +\end{forest} +``` + +</details> + +As a reminder, English is not consistently head-initial. Subjects ("specifiers") in English appear before the verb, breaking this convention. This common structure is represented as the following: + +![`[X [Y (specifier)] [X_Y [X_{Y,Z} (head)] [Z (complement)]]]`](english-specifier.png) +<details markdown="block"> +<summary>LaTeX</summary> + +```latex +\begin{forest} +[$X$ + [$Y$ [(specifier)]] + [$X_Y$ + [$X_{Y,Z}$ [(head)]] + [$Z$ [(complement)]]]] +\end{forest} +``` + +</details> + +The lexicon and structure are blended in bare phrase structure. This is useful, and allows us to indicate more specific selectional requirements on the tree itself. + +... + +### Lexical Entries + +... + +## References + +- ✨ [An Introduction to Syntactic Analysis and Theory](https://annas-archive.org/md5/11bbf70ff9259025bc6985ba3fa4083b) +- MIT 24.902: [2017](https://web.mit.edu/norvin/www/24.902/24902.html), [2015](https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/24-902-language-and-its-structure-ii-syntax-fall-2015/), [2003](https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/24-902-language-and-its-structure-ii-syntax-fall-2003/) |